various carbonated beverages. The teacher will break the class into groups of 3-5. Each group is assigned the task to bring to school for the next lesson one or more bottled carbonated beverages. The bottles should be made of glass and have same content (e.g. 330 mL). In addition, students will be Dec 26, 2018 · Carbonation creates bubbles and fizzing in a beverage due to the presence of carbon dioxide gas. Carbonated beverages include soda, cola or “pop” and are also known as soft drinks. A soft drink can also refer to other drinks without alcohol. The manufacture of carbonated beverages can be broadly divided into the following sub-processes:BEST VALUE FOR MONEY Best Rugged Water Bottle for Carbonated Drinks. If you are looking for a water bottle that will keep your drink cold and fizzy but is also rugged so that it won’t dent easily, go with the Coleman stainless steel water bottle (Amazon link).Its double-wall, vacuum-sealed design will keep your drink cold for up to 31 hours.Another thing that …The carbonated drinks industry must adapt to the growing demand for healthier products. In 2020, China’s carbonated drinks market increased from 78.8 billion RMB (11.4 billion USD) in 2014 to 88.5 billion RMB (12.8 billion USD), with an annual compound growth rate of only 1.9%, much lower than that of other kinds of …Non-carbonated drinks are beverages like milk, wine, spirits, spring water and fresh juice that do not have carbon dioxide dissolved in them. Almost any beverage can be carbonated ...An image being shared on social media states that hypercapnia, or breathing too much carbon dioxide, can cause symptoms like drowsiness and dizziness. That much is true, and the im...Packaging requirements · Preserve CO2 levels inside the packaging. · Reduced bottle expansion due to internal pressure (Shape keeping). · Containers must pass&...Oct 18, 2022 · Three reasons: first, when carbonated bubbles come out of solution, they tingle the tongue in a pleasant way. Second, carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which gives carbonated beverages a slight acidic bite. Third, bubbles lift aromatic molecules to the nose, which intensifies perception of flavor. Knowing how much water to drink daily can help your body function like the well-lubricated engine it is. But knowing how much water to drink a day, in general, is just the start. W... Traditional champagne is carbonated to approximately 4.6 volumes of CO 2 but can be found as high as 6 volumes of CO 2 (Moriaux et al. 2018). In the beer industry, most craft and lager-style beers are carbonated to 2.4–2.6 volumes of CO 2, but this depends on the style. For example, German wheat beer has one of the highest beer carbonation ... Drinking enough water can help you feel satisfied longer and consume fewer calories throughout the day. In addition, unsweetened sparkling water can serve as a refreshing replacement for soda and ... Making a delicious product requires the best ingredients. We source the best-tasting fruit and let it shine. Real, squeezed, and never-from-concentrate. To halt the carbonation process, it is recommended to refrigerate the bottles, as this promotes yeast dormancy, preventing over-carbonation and potential bottle explosions. Benefits and Dangers Carbonation is a wonderful process that enhances the enjoyment of beverages. Without carbonation, soft drinks and beer would be less satisfying. The ready-to-drink (RTD) coffee and tea market is expected to grow significantly in the coming years, reaching $133 billion by 2027. This is due in part to the increasing popularity of coffee and tea among consumers, as well as the growing demand for convenient and healthy beverage options. One of the key trends driving the growth of the …Dec 22, 2022 · Thickened carbonated beverages used in the study were prepared the day before the test by a single dentist. Commercial carbonated beverage colas, which contain approximately 3.7–3.8 GV of carbon dioxide gas, were used as the test liquids because it was familiar and readily available. Dec 22, 2022 · Thickened carbonated beverages used in the study were prepared the day before the test by a single dentist. Commercial carbonated beverage colas, which contain approximately 3.7–3.8 GV of carbon dioxide gas, were used as the test liquids because it was familiar and readily available. In the Rancho Bernardo study, BMD was measured in 1,000 women together with an estimation of carbonated beverages; no association was found between BMD and any type of carbonated beverage . In the Nurses’ Health study, they collected a history of hip fractures and performed a semi quantitative food frequency diet survey every 4 years for 30 ...Feb 25, 2021 · Controlling for bottle capacity, a bottle of carbonated beverage requires on average 6.70 g (95% CI, 3.13–10.28 g) or 109% more PET than a bottle of non-carbonated water.Jul 27, 2021 ... Squirt 100% imo. Honestly best Soda if you enjoy grapefruit or citrus in general.National Beverage Corp. innovatively refreshes America with a distinctive portfolio of sparkling waters, juices, energy drinks, and to a lesser extent, carbonated soft drinks. We believe our creative product designs, innovative packaging, and imaginative flavors, along with our corporate culture and philosophy, make National Beverage unique as ...Feb 1, 2002 · Trains of bubbles formed on vessel walls containing a carbonated soft drink can form at relatively low supersaturation levels of 3–5, depending on the presence of pre-existing gas–liquid interfaces ( ). It is also known that changing the size of these bubbles alters sensory impact of the beverage.Carbonated soft drinks (CSDs) are a combination of carbonated water and flavouring, sweetened by sugar or a non-sugar sweeteners. The production of carbonated soft drinks contributes approximately $4 billion per annum. Carbonated soft drinks, or CSDs, can be sweetened by sugar or a range of non-nutritive sweeteners. Sucrose is widely used and …Feb 1, 2002 · Trains of bubbles formed on vessel walls containing a carbonated soft drink can form at relatively low supersaturation levels of 3–5, depending on the presence of pre-existing gas–liquid interfaces ( ). It is also known that changing the size of these bubbles alters sensory impact of the beverage.Feb 23, 2024 · Share of carbonated beverage market in China 2019, by company. Published by Statista Research Department , Feb 23, 2024. In 2019, Coca-Cola accounted for around 55 percent of China's carbonated ...Jan 1, 2021 · Ultrasound application in carbonated beverages. Carbonated beverages are the highest consumed drinks around the globe, and include soft drinks, energy drinks, juices, carbonated water, and coffee. Carbon dioxide gas is incorporated into beverages at high pressure, which makes the drink fizzy (Chun et al., 2016).Sodastream has become a popular choice for those who enjoy carbonated beverages but want to reduce their environmental impact. With the ability to make your own fizzy drinks at hom...Sodastream has become a popular choice for those who enjoy carbonated beverages but want to reduce their environmental impact. With the ability to make your own fizzy drinks at hom...Oct 30, 2023 · Globally, the entire carbonated beverage market is valued at USD 406 Billion. Different companies market a multitude of brands and even have licensing agreements to supply other brands in different markets. The big players look like this: Coca Cola Company. The company offers more than 500 brands in more than 200 countries. Coca-cola; The Beverage Guidance Panel gave its “least recommended” designation to beverages that are sweetened with sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, or other high-calorie sweeteners and that have few other nutrients. These include carbonated and noncarbonated soft drinks, fruit drinks, lemonade, and other “ades.” To halt the carbonation process, it is recommended to refrigerate the bottles, as this promotes yeast dormancy, preventing over-carbonation and potential bottle explosions. Benefits and Dangers Carbonation is a wonderful process that enhances the enjoyment of beverages. Without carbonation, soft drinks and beer would be less satisfying. Beverage Carbonation. The revolutionary line of ProCarb Inline Carbonation Systems enables beverage producers to efficiently carbonate their product. TechniBlend's customizable approach to each project means that we work hand in hand with our partners, creating a unique product that fits their production and output needs. Regardless of …The meaning of CARBONATE is a salt or ester of carbonic acid. How to use carbonate in a sentence.SodaStream Art Sparkling Water Maker. £100 at Amazon. £100 at Amazon. Read more. Best premium soda maker. Aarke Carbonator 3 Sparkling Water Maker. £190 at Amazon. £190 at Amazon. Read more.Carbon paper is a simple and effective method for transferring designs and logos that you may not know still exists. Here's how. Expert Advice On Improving Your Home Videos Latest ...Root beer is a sweet North American soft drink traditionally made using the root bark of the sassafras tree Sassafras albidum or the vine of Smilax ornata (known as sarsaparilla, also used to make a soft drink, sarsaparilla) as the primary flavor.Root beer is typically, but not exclusively, non-alcoholic, caffeine-free, sweet, and carbonated.Like cola, it usually has …Carbonated Beverage. In carbonated beverages, the growth of spoilage yeasts is usually characterized by a great production of gas, packaging distension and …A carbonated drink is a beverage that has dissolved carbon dioxide, most often to improve the taste and/or texture. Subcategories. This category has the following 6 subcategories, …Frozen carbonated beverages (FCB) offer an exciting way to add maximum profit into your existing beverage program without sacrificing valuable space. Available ...SodaStream and Soda Sense both promise that their carbon dioxide cylinders (which cost about $15 to $20 each if you have empty cylinders to exchange and around $30 each if you buy without an ...Find the drinking bottle for carbonated drinks that fits your lifestyle! Quality since 1908. We at SIGG are professionals in the production of drinking bottles for carbonated beverages. We've been producing high quality aluminium products since 1908. It all started with the original aluminium drinking bottle and over the years countless other ...Non-carbonated drinks are beverages like milk, wine, spirits, spring water and fresh juice that do not have carbon dioxide dissolved in them. Almost any beverage can be carbonated ... Benefits of drinking carbonated water. “Carbonated water is just as efficient at hydrating the body as plain spring or purified water. Plus, it can be a nice break from tap water,” says Dr. Lodhi. “Getting your daily dose of water is vital, so if sparkling water helps you drink enough, that is a positive step toward good health.”. Apr 6, 2023 · The present study was conducted to analyze the erosive potential of the ever-increasing consumption of carbonated drinks on the dental surface. To identify relevant studies, a comprehensive search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science covering the last 5 years (2018–2023) using the following Boolean keywords: “soft drinks …So, what are carbonated drinks (AKA fizzy drinks)?. Carbonated fizzy drink. Quick warning: more nerdy science info coming up, skip the next paragraph if you ...Mar 9, 2014 · Are carbonated beverages bad for you? In the early 1990s, Harvard researchers reported study results showing that teenage girls who consumed a lot of cola tended to have more broken bones. In 2003, a study of soft drink (not just cola) consumption among teenagers in Northern Ireland linked high intake to lower bone mineral density among the ... Sparkling wine—or champagne, depending on where the beverage was produced—is the drink of choice for celebrations and also pairs well with light dishes like fish or chicken. Energy Drinks Enviga, Red Bull, Jolt and Monster are carbonated drinks that have stimulants that help energize.Feb 13, 2024 · The company is the exclusive bottler of Coca-Cola and Sprite. The brands sell carbonated beverages such as Coca-Cola, Sprite, and Fanta. 4. Partex Beverage Ltd. Running since 1997, Partex beverage Ltd. is one of the most prominent beverage companies in Bangladesh. The company sells beverages ranging from soft drinks to …The combination of calcium carbonate and magnesium is commonly found in antacids. These medicines provide heartburn relief. The combination of calcium carbonate and magnesium is co...Abstract. translated from. Addition of a polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid ester or of a polyethylene glycol fatty acid ester to an acidulated carbonated ...Oct 26, 2023 · Yep, carbonated waters and seltzers behave just like sodas when frozen. Expect explosions unless you take the recommended precautions. BrainPOP: Perfectly Chilled Sparkling Sodas. After learning the soda science behind freezing sodas, you may be wondering: is there a better way to enjoy ice-cold bubbly beverages anytime?Jan 6, 2022 · Kombucha also can be still or carbonated depending on the preference of the consumer. A champagne-like mead can be excellent. The level of carbonation in a kegged beverage is determined by two factors- the pressure of CO2 forced into it and temperature. Cold liquids will absorb and hold CO2 more readily than a warmer liquid.Aug 15, 2023 · Interestingly, actual carbonated beverages demonstrated higher MPs concentrations (260.52±27.18-281.38±61.33 particles/L) than those observed in our well-controlled experimental setup. Our study highlights the non-negligible risk of MPs/NPs in carbonated beverages at low temperatures and suggests strategies to mitigate human … 3.20 Carbonated coffee. It is sparkling carbonated beverage containing coffee brew, sugar, acid, carbon dioxide and preservatives. Its preparation consists of mixing of sugar syrup, coffee brew, acids, preservatives followed by dilution and carbonation. It is best enjoyed as a chilled beverage. Oct 26, 2023 · Yep, carbonated waters and seltzers behave just like sodas when frozen. Expect explosions unless you take the recommended precautions. BrainPOP: Perfectly Chilled Sparkling Sodas. After learning the soda science behind freezing sodas, you may be wondering: is there a better way to enjoy ice-cold bubbly beverages anytime?The ready-to-drink (RTD) coffee and tea market is expected to grow significantly in the coming years, reaching $133 billion by 2027. This is due in part to the increasing popularity of coffee and tea among consumers, as well as the growing demand for convenient and healthy beverage options. One of the key trends driving the growth of the …. 3.20 Carbonated coffee. It is sparkling carbonated beverage containing coffee brew, sugar, acid, carbon dioxide and preservatives. Its preparation consists of mixing of sugar syrup, coffee brew, acids, preservatives followed by dilution and carbonation. It is best enjoyed as a chilled beverage. Oct 1, 2005 · Carbonated beverages can be evaluated by auditory cues (Zampini & Spence, 2005) and based on their appearance of the bubbles in the product (Lynch & Bamforth, 2002). Carbonation has also impacted aroma perception, including enhancing the aroma of mint beverages (Saint-Eve et al., 2009) and increasing the overall aroma intensity of …Oct 1, 2005 · Carbonated beverages can be evaluated by auditory cues (Zampini & Spence, 2005) and based on their appearance of the bubbles in the product (Lynch & Bamforth, 2002). Carbonation has also impacted aroma perception, including enhancing the aroma of mint beverages (Saint-Eve et al., 2009) and increasing the overall aroma intensity of …Feb 9, 2010 · Overall, carbonated beverages have not been consistently shown to cause GERD-related symptoms. 1 Fass et al. have demonstrated that consumption of carbonated beverages increased the risk of having heartburn that awakens subjects from sleep during the night by 24% (OR 1.24 95% CI 1.07–1.45). 20 In contrast, several population-based …Star is a leading beverage manufacturer and distributor in the Dubai, UAE & Saudi Arabia, selling and exporting beverages incl. soda, carbonated soft drinks and drinking water. We are also a private label manufacturer of …Mar 9, 2014 · Are carbonated beverages bad for you? In the early 1990s, Harvard researchers reported study results showing that teenage girls who consumed a lot of cola tended to have more broken bones. In 2003, a study of soft drink (not just cola) consumption among teenagers in Northern Ireland linked high intake to lower bone mineral density …Feb 27, 2024 · 5. Let the beverage sit for 10 minutes until all of the dry ice dissolves. Screw the cap with the holes in it onto the plastic bottle. This is so that the pressure can escape while the beverage is carbonating. [6] If the dry ice starts to stick to the plastic bottle, gently mix the beverage to help free the dry ice. 6.A carbonated drink is a beverage that has dissolved carbon dioxide, most often to improve the taste and/or texture. Subcategories. This category has the following 6 subcategories, … 3.20 Carbonated coffee. It is sparkling carbonated beverage containing coffee brew, sugar, acid, carbon dioxide and preservatives. Its preparation consists of mixing of sugar syrup, coffee brew, acids, preservatives followed by dilution and carbonation. It is best enjoyed as a chilled beverage. Carbonated beverages may cause a temporary distension of a person’s stomach, says For Dummies, though sodas can create long-term issues. Seltzer water, for example, may cause bloat...Carbon paper is a simple and effective method for transferring designs and logos that you may not know still exists. Here's how. Expert Advice On Improving Your Home Videos Latest ...You can invest in carbon credits through companies, or carbon credit ETFs and futures. Here’s a breakdown of the risks and the steps to buy shares. Calculators Helpful Guides Compa...Jan 17, 2024 · Best Overall: Drinkmate Sparkling Water and Soda Maker at Amazon ($120) Jump to Review. Runner-Up, Best Overall: SodaStream Fizzi One Touch at Walmart ($167) Jump to Review. Best Splurge: Aarke Carbonator III Sparkling & Seltzer Water Maker at Amazon ($225) Jump to Review.Carbonated soft drinks (CSDs) are a combination of carbonated water and flavouring, sweetened by sugar or a non-sugar sweeteners. The production of carbonated soft drinks contributes approximately $4 billion per annum. Carbonated soft drinks, or CSDs, can be sweetened by sugar or a range of non-nutritive sweeteners. Sucrose is widely used and …Apr 26, 2023 · The Chinese beverage market is composed of three primary categories: non-alcoholic beverages, alcoholic beverages, and hot drinks. Among these categories, packaged drinking water, carbonated beverages, dairy products, and sparkling water are the most popular beverages in China, with 62.7%, 55%, 54%, and 42% of Chinese …Sep 2, 2018 · Carbonated dairy beverages are beverages that are dairy based such as yogurt, milk, buttermilk, etc. and that have been carbonated through either microbiological or physical methods. The additionAn image being shared on social media states that hypercapnia, or breathing too much carbon dioxide, can cause symptoms like drowsiness and dizziness. That much is true, and the im...Carbonated drinks – Uniform, permanent and “fine sparkling” GEA process technology ensures that beverages are always consistently carbonated, regardless of the many …Carbonated beverages are the highest consumed drinks around the globe, and include soft drinks, energy drinks, juices, carbonated water, and coffee. Carbon dioxide gas is …Sparkling Beverages. Sports Drinks. Waters/Enhanced Waters. Choose your interest. AMP ENERGY® AQUAFINA® BRISK® BUBLY™ EVOLVE. GATORADE® LIFEWTR™ LIPTON® MANZANITA SOL® MTN DEW® MUG® ROOT BEER. MUSCLE MILK® PEPSI® PROPEL® PURE LEAF® ROCKSTAR ENERGY® ...Final Rule: DEHP October 2011. Final Rule: Coliform Bacteria May 2009. Final Rule: Arsenic June 2005. Final Rule: Uranium March 2003 ( Companion Document to the Uranium Direct Final Rule) Final ...Mix 1 part juice with 3 parts seltzer to create this light and bubbly concoction. Pomegranate juice and grape juice are sources of antioxidants that may help protect your brain and blood vessels ...Starbucks is jumping on the soda streaming bandwagon. And amazingly it’s letting customers in certain stores globally carbonate not just juices and sodas but a selection of its cof...The ready-to-drink (RTD) coffee and tea market is expected to grow significantly in the coming years, reaching $133 billion by 2027. This is due in part to the increasing popularity of coffee and tea among consumers, as well as the growing demand for convenient and healthy beverage options. One of the key trends driving the growth of the …Jul 28, 2021 · The number of flavors ICEE has produced over the years. Per ICEE’s official FAQ, there are over 150 unique flavors of the icy, carbonated beverage.But here’s the kicker: there are only around 30 or so flavor options available at any given time. The reason for this isn’t clear, but it doesn’t stop the company from selling over 500 million drinks per …Sep 2, 2018 · Carbonated dairy beverages are beverages that are dairy based such as yogurt, milk, buttermilk, etc. and that have been carbonated through either microbiological or physical methods. The additionMajor brewers, poultry plants, and trade associations are warning of reduced production because of the shortage. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is used in the production of a wide variety of...Report Overview. The global carbonated beverages market size was valued at USD 406.89 billion in 2019 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.1% from 2020 to 2027. Strong popularity of soda drinks among the generation X and generation Y age groups is expected to play a crucial role in expanding the market size.Feb 25, 2021 · Controlling for bottle capacity, a bottle of carbonated beverage requires on average 6.70 g (95% CI, 3.13–10.28 g) or 109% more PET than a bottle of non-carbonated water.Sep 15, 2021 · A carbonation level of 3.92 g/L is the minimum amount of carbonation necessary for a product to be considered a carbonated beverage by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) (27 CFR 4.21). A carbonation level of approximately 5.9 g/L is often used for fruit sodas such as lemon, lime, or grapefruit soda, while a …Non-carbonated drinks are beverages like milk, wine, spirits, spring water and fresh juice that do not have carbon dioxide dissolved in them. Almost any beverage can be carbonated ...Carbonated Beverages Market Size & Share Analysis - Growth Trends & Forecasts (2024 - 2029) The Carbonated Beverages Market is growing at a CAGR of 6.5% over the next 5 years. PepsiCo Inc., Asahi Group Holdings, Bickford's Australia, The Coca-Cola Company and National Beverage Corp.e are the major companies operating in this market.The Keurig Dr Pepper product facts website provides the latest nutrition and ingredient information so you can make informed choices.Oct 18, 2022 · Three reasons: first, when carbonated bubbles come out of solution, they tingle the tongue in a pleasant way. Second, carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which gives carbonated beverages a slight acidic bite. Third, bubbles lift aromatic molecules to the nose, which intensifies perception of flavor. Feb 8, 2024 · Carbonated beverages are made by incorporating carbon dioxide into a liquid. The most common type of carbonated beverage is the soft drink. Other types of beverages such as water, juice and energy drinks are often carbonated as well. Some wine manufacturers enhance their products with carbon dioxide, which creates a fizzy, …Oct 5, 2016 · It is not uncommon for research and quality control samples, including carbonated beverage samples, to be refrigerated or frozen during peak periods of production and/or sampling, when analytical demand …Jun 4, 2022 · Carbonation in cheaper sparkling wine happens when carbon dioxide is injected directly into the wine before bottling. This process is similar to creating sparkling water or soda. This method is used because adding carbon dioxide to the wine occurs before the wine goes through malolactic fermentation so it has a chance to remain unchanged after ... Cola is a carbonated soft drink flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, citrus oils, and other flavorings.Cola became popular worldwide after the American pharmacist John Stith Pemberton invented Coca-Cola, a trademarked brand, in 1886, which was imitated by other manufacturers.Most colas originally contained caffeine from the kola nut (Cola …Carbonated water can be part of a healthy diet for children —particularly when compared to drinking sugary soda—but less is definitely more, says Amy Reed, MS, RD, CSP, LD, a pediatric dietitian and spokesperson for the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND). Learn more about whether these sparkly beverages are a good choice …The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by NICE CXone Expert and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under …May 10, 2023 · Carbonated water is a healthier alternative to soda, juice or sports drinks like Gatorade. Hard seltzers tend to have fewer calories than beer. But not all carbonated water drinks are created equal. Some contain added sugars or artificial sweeteners, which can add calories, harm teeth and trigger some health conditions. Sep 15, 2021 · A carbonation level of 3.92 g/L is the minimum amount of carbonation necessary for a product to be considered a carbonated beverage by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) (27 CFR 4.21). A carbonation level of approximately 5.9 g/L is often used for fruit sodas such as lemon, lime, or grapefruit soda, while a …The carbonic acid in the beverage is what makes it taste a little sour. A colder drink is a bubblier one. The bubbles in carbonated beverages are filled with CO₂ …Jul 11, 2019 · Many varieties of sparkling water have no calories or sweeteners, but still carry some side effects. Because of carbon dioxide, all carbonated beverages can contribute to gas and bloating. If you notice an upset stomach after drinking sparkling water, try cutting back and seeing how you feel. Some carbonated waters may also make you feel hungrier. Happiness and carbon emissions could be related according to a recent study. Learn about happiness and carbon emissions. Advertisement Bad air quality days may be becoming more com...This non-carbonated beverage is uniquely crafted with Stateside Vodka. Though it has 100 calories per can, it is a sure winner regarding flavors and character. Besides, its vodka alcohol content is slightly lower than other non-carbonated drinks on this list. So, expect a unique taste and profile to keep you looking for more. 7. Twisted Tea ...Nov 15, 2022 · Carbonated Drinks . Soda and other carbonated drinks are often considered triggers for heartburn and acid reflux. According to one review, several studies have found a significant association between carbonated beverages and a higher risk of reflux disease.As a can is around 12 fluid ounces, or 355 ml, the amount of COX2 in a can is: 2.2 g COX2 ∗ 1 mol COX2 44 g COX2 = 0.05 mol. 355 mL ∗ 1 L 1000 mL = 0.355 L. So here we can see we have about 0.05 mol/0.355 L or about 0.14 mol of carbon dioxide per liter of soda. Of course this value varies by manufacturer, type of drink, container, etc.The carbonic acid in the beverage is what makes it taste a little sour . A colder drink is a bubblier one. Another important factor influencing carbonation is … ---1